Culloden 280th Anniversary - The Final Battle on British Ground
- from Redcoat by Forlorn Hope
On the 16th of April 1746, the “Final Battle on British Ground” was fought between British Government forces, led by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, and the Jacobite rebels under Charles Edward Stuart, claimant prince to the thrones of England and Scotland. This was the final armed attempt to overthrow Britain's ruling sovereign. It will also serve as the culminating event in my upcoming novel, Crimson Empire: Echoes on the Moor.
Few outside of Britain are even aware of Culloden, let alone its significance, unless they’re fans of the show, “Outlander.” While entertaining, like most films, it ridiculously romanticises the era, with its historical interpretations complete bullshit, to put it mildly. To be fair, the film industry is not entirely to blame. The mythologising of Highland culture began during the reign of King George IV, nearly eighty years after Culloden, exploding in popularity during the Victorian Era. We can blame the Victorians for most of the myths depicted in film and television.
I've personally visited Culloden twice with my good mate, Chris Simpson of the epic History Metal band, Forlorn Hope. Walking the ground is a sobering experience, no matter which side one favours. One of the best maintained battlefields in Britain, with a stellar museum, I highly recommend it.
Arguably the best film source on Culloden is a 1964 docudrama produced by the BBC and made by renowned documentary filmmaker, Peter Watkins, who passed away in October 2025 at the age of ninety. Filmed in black and white, it’s depicted as a 20th century television news crew on the ground, interviewing various participants and watching the battle itself. Meticulously cast, it pulls no punches, and completely smashes the ridiculous romanticism of the era right from the start. It’s available on YouTube in remastered high-resolution (link below), and I cannot recommend it enough.
Link to Culloden Docudrama on Youtube
To better understand “The ‘45,” as the Uprising is often referred, and the Battle of Culloden, we must first look at the motives behind the uprising, while correcting a few myths and misunderstandings that have persisted since the Highland Revival of the Victorian Era.
-A Brief Background
In 1689, the Stuart King, James II of England and VII of Scotland was overthrown by his own daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange, in what was styled the “Glorious Revolution.” James was a devout Catholic, while William and Mary were protestant. The royal couple, who ruled as coequal sovereigns, were childless, with the throne passing to Mary's sister, Anne, in 1702. Their father, living in exile in France, died the year before, having outlived Mary. The deposed king had another son, also named James, who was more than two decades younger than his sisters. It was assumed the younger James would ascend to the throne, as Anne would also die childless. However, a series of complicated political machinations, including his refusal to renounce his Catholic faith, led to his being attainted, his line completely severed from the succession. The Act of Settlement of 1701 declared the crowns of England and Scotland would pass to Electress Sophia of Hanover, cousin of the now-widowed King William III (Mary having died in 1694). Sophia was also a granddaughter of King James I of England, VI of Scotland, the first Stuart king. This made her a cousin of the exiled James II / VII. What's more, she and her heirs were Protestants. Sophia, who was in her eighties, passed away two months before Queen Anne in 1714. The Crown, therefore, went to her son, George, Elector or Hanover, who became King George I of Great Britain; the Crowns of England and Scotland having been unified in 1707. Thus, was the House of Hanover founded. George I died in 1727, with rule passing to his son, King George II.
Following the death of James II / VII in 1701, Stuart hopes fell to his son, James Edward Stuart. Self-styled as King James III of England, VIII of Scotland, in Britain he was referred to as "The Old Pretender." Their adherants were called the Jacobites, derived from Jacobus, Latin for James. At its core, the Jacobite Uprisings of 1689, 1715, 1719, and finally 1745 – 46 were attempts to restore the House of Stuart and overthrow the ruling House of Hanover. The final uprising, often referred to as "The '45," was led by James Stuart's son, Charles Edward Stuart, popularly known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, though called "The Young Pretender" by the British.
It should be noted, motivations of the individual combatants on each side were as varied as the men themselves. This was especially true in Scotland.
-Scots vs English
Contrary to pervading myth, the Jacobite Uprisings were never Scotland vs England. The mistake is understandable at first glance, for the Jacobite army was overwhelmingly Highlander Scot. Lowland Scots, who differed in culture, language, and dress from their Highland kinsmen, are mostly ignored in the tellings of the Uprisings, though they fought in great numbers on both sides. The British Government (i.e. Redcoat) army had many Scots, Highland and Lowland alike, in its ranks. Four of the fourteen British regiments that fought at Culloden were Scottish. There was even a separate Highland Battalion consisting of the Earl of Loudoun's 64th Highlanders, supported by companies from the 43rd (later 42nd) Black Watch, with numerous militia companies from the Campbells of Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. The supposedly “English” regiments of the British army had an assortment of Scots, Irish, and Welsh. It is estimated that between 30 - 40% of the British Government army at Culloden were Scotsmen.
-Catholic vs Protestant
Another persistent misunderstanding stems from the Stuarts being Catholics, who were thus banned from the British succession. However, only around a quarter of all Scottish Jacobites were Catholic, with most of the rest being Presbyterian. There were referred to as "non-juring" Presbyterians, whose clergy had refused to swear the required oaths of allegiance to the House of Hanover, following the ascension of King George I in 1714.
-Highland Broadsword vs British Firepower
When we think of the Highland warrior, we envision him wielding a broadsword and targe (shield). In fact, only around a quarter to a third of all Highland Scots in the Jacobite army were thus equipped. There were expensive to craft and limited to clan nobles and the wealthy. Because they were expected to lead by example, having the lead ranks carrying broadsword and targe gave the illusion that all were armed in this fashion. In fact, most of the Jacobites carried some form of musket. These were mostly French, though hundreds of British firearms were taken from the field at Prestonpans.
-A War Between Clans
As Peter Watkins’ docudrama astutely portrays, your average Highlander cared nothing about who sat upon the thrones of England or Scotland. Mostly poor tenant farmers, referred to as “human rent,” they were required to fight for the clan chieftain whenever he demanded. Enmity between various clans extended back centuries. During the Uprisings, many sided with either the Jacobites or Hanoverians based on who fought for each side. For example: While John Campbell, 4th Duke of Argyll, was a staunch Hanoverian loyalist, many Campbells eagerly took up arms simply because their hated rivals, the MacDonells (or MacDonalds), supported the House of Stuart.
Lord George Murray, by Robert Strange
National Galleries of Scotland
The Uprising was further complicated by divided loyalties within each clan. One such case is Lord George Murray, who served as the Jacobite’s senior lieutenant general, winning their greatest victory at Prestonpans in September 1745. His older brother, the Marquess of Tullibardine, was one of Charles Stuart’s inner circle, known a the Moidart Seven. Two other brothers, however, sided with the House of Hanover. One was James, Duke of Atholl, forced to flee from the Jacobites. In a bitter embarrassment to the duke, his lands spawned the Atholl Brigade, one of the more famous Jacobite regiments. Another brother, John, was a British army officer who was appointed Colonel of the Black Watch soon after Culloden.
Another example is William, Earl of Kilmarnock, the only Lowland Scot noble to side with the Jacobites. His son, James, was a lieutenant with the 1st Royal Scots of the British army. Father and son would eventually face each other at Culloden.
Inner-family rivalries weren’t just confined to the nobility. Captain James Chisholm, a Highland Scot, was a company commander within the British 1st Royal Scots Regiment. His youngest brother, Roderick, led Clan Chisholm for the Jacobites. At Culloden, the Jacobite Chisholms and 1st Royal Scots stood directly across from each other along the moor.
The Chisholm Brothers, Roderick and James, as depicted in the 1964 BBC Docudrama, Culloden
-Conflicting Jacobite Objectives
Debate over the final objective of the Uprising afflicted the highest echelons of Jacobite leadership. While Prince Charles desired a full restoration of both the English and Scottish Crowns to his father, many of the Highland clan chiefs only wished to drive the Hanoverians from Scotland. Alexander MacDonell of Keppoch openly decried the Act of Union, which unified the Kingdoms of England and Scotland in 1707, as “a great betrayal.” Following their decisive victory at Prestonpans, most Jacobite Scots, both Highlander and Lowlander, declared Scotland "free," questioning why the Bonnie Prince was now asking them to invade England. Charles' promise of great wealth and land, with tens-of-thousands of English Jacobites rising up, compelled the Highland chieftains to begrudgingly support the invasion. Despite early success, with the cities of Carlisle and Manchester falling to the Jacobites, desertions and poor logistics plagued the army. By the time they reached Derby, roughly ten days' march from London, with only a few hundred Englishmen heeding the call to arms, the Highland clans refused to advance any further. With a host of experienced, battle-hardened British regiments returning from Belgium, Lord George Murray candidly told Prince Charles that a march on London was suicidal. Thus, did the Jacobite army begin the long retreat back into Scotland, with Manchester quickly changing its allegiance back to the Hanoverians, and the small garrison left to guard Carlisle Castle quickly overwhelmed by Cumberland's army.
-Redcoat Objectives
For the British Government army, it was more straightforward. William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland and second surviving son of King George II, was sent to crush the uprising and put an end to further attempts at overthrowing the ruling dynasty. Aside from militia and a couple of cavalry regiments serving short terms, the Redcoats were full-time professional soldiers. Nearly all were volunteers, though rare conscriptions did occur. Officers came from the noble or moneyed classes. As this was right before the Industrial Revolution, the rank and file were overwhelmingly illiterate farm labourers. Few enlisted out of any sense of patriotism. Most “took the King’s Shilling” to avoid starvation, particularly after a bad harvest. Some unscrupulous types donned the red jacket in lieu of prison. The few who could read and write often became non-commissioned officers (NCOs), i.e. the sergeants and corporals, as literacy was required to serve in leadership positions. For the Redcoats at Culloden, the motivation was simple, “King George commands and we obey.”
It’s worth mentioning those soldiers who broke their oaths to King George and changed sides. This was most notable after the disastrous Government defeat at Prestonpans. Several hundred captured soldiers accepted the chance to serve Prince Charles. All still wore their red jackets, as there were no Jacobite uniforms to be issued. The risk was great, for any captured would be immediately court martialled and executed.
-The End of a Bad Affair
By the time they faced the British army at Culloden Moor near Inverness, the Jacobites were exhausted, hungry, depleted by desertions, disease, and casualties over the previous eight months. The winter campaign had been especially grim, with the Battle of Falkirk in January 1746 a chaotic horror fought in a blizzard, where both sides uncertain whether they'd won or lost. Lord George Murray, who'd found himself more and more in conflict with Prince Charles, is said to have described Culloden as, "The end of a bad affair." He further decried the choice of ground, as Culloden is open and relatively flat.
Results of the inevitable clash, however, were not a foregone conclusion. The 15th of April was Cumberland's birthday, with the Jacobites assuming the British would all be drunk in celebration. Lord George Murray led the mostly Highland army in a long march of around eight miles in the middle of the night, in an attempt to destroy the British where they were encamped at Nairn. In recent years, historian Dan Snow attempted the trek in the dark and got no more than a mile over the course of a couple hours, and found himself completely lost. The Jacobites never got close to the British camp, and by morning, they were scattered and completely spent as they staggered back to their encampment.
-Battle on the Moor
Despite the failure of the night raid, lack of food, and utter exhaustion of his army, Charles Stuart remained supremely confident that victory would be his, declaring, "God is on our side!" Though the BBC docudrama places the Jacobite force at 5,000 fighting men vs 9,000 in the British Government Army, modern estimates place it at a closer parity of between 7,000 and 8,000 each. The British, however, were rested, well-fed, and fighting on advantageous ground. And while the Jacobites had a slight advantage in cannon, their crews were untrained and poorly supplied, with the British manned by professional gunners. Observers later reported the British could fire fifteen shots to the Jacobites' one. Few Jacobite cannon shot found their mark, within minutes their guns were taken out of action. And while the muddy ground mitigated the effects from British 3-pounder cannon, casualties were still inflicted, with the Jacobites feeling utterly helpless as they waited for the order to attack.
-A One-Sided Massacre
Romanticised depictions, such as the popular series, “Outlander,” make Culloden seem like a heroic last stand of the noble Highlander against the dastardly English. Our protagonists easily cut down scores of Redcoats, who the film industry loves to portray as mindless automatons that are both weak and incompetent. The truth bears almost no resemblance to Outlander’s depiction. The show also ignores every non-Highlander Jacobite, such as the Irishmen serving as French soldiers, who covered the Jacobite retreat, with one in every three paying with their lives.
Without going into all the details, as there are entire books dedicated to this subject, Culloden was a one-sided massacre. It was fought on the worst possible ground for the mostly-Highland army, exposed in the open. The Jacobite left halted by boggy terrain after recent rains, leaving them exposed to relentless Redcoat musketry and cannon fire. The Jacobite right did manage to smash through the British left; however, Cumberland had shifted his second line to deal with such an emergency. Once the front line reformed, the breaching Jacobites were trapped, with few escaping.
In the end, the British Government army lost 50 dead, with 260 wounded. The BBC docudrama states 1,200 Jacobites were kill, though modern historians now place the estimate at 1,500 dead (though possibly as high as 2,000) with an unknown number of wounded. That’s a fatality ratio of between twenty-four and thirty to one.
-A Merciless Age
As described in the Preface to my previous book, Crimson Empire: Broadswords over England, this was a dark chapter from a merciless age. The atrocities committed by the Redcoats after Culloden are well documented. While exact figures aren’t known, many Jacobite wounded were killed following the battle. However, it should be noted several hundred were taken alive.
What’s often forgotten is the Jacobites, particularly the Highlanders, committed similar acts against the defeated Redcoats at Prestonpans. Contemporary accounts detail the horror of men being chopped to pieces, with “arms, hands, feet, legs, heads, and even noses severed.” It was only the personal intervention of Prince Charles which finally ended the butchery. While this may not excuse the brutality the British Government inflicted on the defeated Jacobites after Culloden, at least from a modern perspective, both sides were capable of ruthless cruelty.
-The Savage Aftermath
One cannot talk about Culloden without mentioning the horrors inflicted after it was over. While some survivors of the Jacobite army did attempt to reform at Ruthven Barracks, Prince Charles’ will to fight was gone. Many senior clan chieftains, such as Alexander MacDonell of Keppoch, were killed at Culloden, with their regiments scattered. By the middle of May, many had either surrendered or fled. It should be noted that some Jacobite prisoners “Turned King’s Evidence,” i.e. gave information on fugitives who’d taken up arms against the Crown, in exchange for leniency or pardon. This was how many who’d fought for the Stuarts at Culloden were later found. The British army spent much of the summer hunting down those deemed traitors. Many, including families, were killed, their homes burned, and livestock taken. This earned Cumberland his nickname, “Butcher Cumberland,” which he is still referred to across much of the Scottish Highlands to this day. Many of the officers who oversaw the brutal acts of vengeance were in fact Scottish.
The subsequent Highland Clearances, which lasted roughly thirty years, were far more complicated and deserve their own telling. It wasn’t, as believed, the British government displacing the Gaelic-speaking clans. With the agricultural and industrial revolutions, it was often the Highland nobility who evicted their own tenants in favour of sheep, which were more profitable and required fewer tenants. This doesn’t, however, diminish the dismantling of Highland culture. The Dress Act of 1746 banned all Highland dress, unless part of the uniform for Scottish regiments, such as the Black Watch, who had their own regimental tartan. The act was repealed in 1782. Playing of bagpipes is a bit of a grey area. While never officially banned in any legislation, they were considered an “instrument of war,” and thus suppressed. This was also ended in 1782, as bagpipes became widely popular amongst Highland regiments of the British army, which they remain to this day.
The Highland Revival, begun by King George IV, saw widespread interest in Highland dress and culture. This was also when tartan patterns and colours specific to each clan began. Plaid patterns worn previously, including during the Jacobite Uprisings, tended to be regional, based on what colours were available, and not specific to any clan.
-A Final Thought
Culloden marked the end of the Jacobite Uprisings, and the last armed attempt at overthrowing a British monarch. Nearly three centuries later, its effects remain. It my sincerest attempt to honour the memories of those who lived through this terrible time in my upcoming novel, Crimson Empire: Echoes on the Moor, telling their stories as best I can, devoid of personal agendas or judgement.
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